WP 92 - An overview of women's work and employment in Azerbaijan

This report provides information on Azerbaijan on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. _History (2.1.1)_. In the 1880s, the first oil boom took place in Azerbaijan. After brief independence from 1918 to 1920, the country realised independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. This was overshadowed by the Nagorno-Karabakh war with Armenia and an economic crisis that hit women dramatically. The 2000s witnessed spectacular economic growth, led by growing oil exports and high oil prices. _Governance (2.1.2)._ Azerbaijan is a secular and unitary republic with a presidential system. Recently the government’s human rights record remained poor. The Constitution guarantees equality and rights for all citizens, but enforcement of human and women’s rights is weak. With the 2009 elections, women representation in parliament came at 11.4%. Domestic violence and sexual harassment are widespread. _Prospects (2.1.3)._ Though Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) fell drastically in 2008-09, the global economic crisis has had a modest impact on Azerbaijan’s economy. A further decline in jobs in manufacturing sub-sectors like textiles, garment and leather has negatively affected female employment. _Communication (2.2)._ Thoiugh the coverage of fi xed telephone connections has recently grown, this is dwarfed by the expansion of the incidence of cell phones, to over three in four of the population in 2008. By that year, 181 per 1,000 were Internet users. Nearly all households have a TV set. Freedom of press, be it TV, radio or printed press, is a recurrent problem. _The sectoral labour market structure – Population and employment (2.3.1)._ Between 2003 and 2008 a growing ”informalisation” of the economy has taken place, in particular concerning women’s employment. With 66% in 2008, women’s Labour Participation Rate (LPR) was 91% of men’s. _The sectoral labour market structure - Unemployment (2.3.2)_. In the 2000s unemployment fell from 10-13% to 6-7%. The differences between the male and female unemployment rates are marginal. In 2006 unemployment was highest for girls and young women aged 15-24 (17%), followed by their male peers (15.5%). Most likely this picture is structural. _Legislation (2.4.1)._ Azerbaijan has ratifi ed the eight core ILO Labour Conventions. The Constitution provides for the right to strike, but there are exceptions. The State prohibits unions from carrying out political activities. In the informal economy the government did not enforce contracts or labour legislation. _Labour relations and wage-setting (2.4.2)._ Depending on how many members the affi liates of the ATUC, the only union confederation, have, union density may vary between 42 and 91%. The national process of wage-setting seems to be orchestrated top-down, but some reservations should be made, like on bilateral government agreements with multinational enterprises (MNEs), setting aside labour laws. Unions also rarely participate in determining wage levels in the state sector. _The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1)._ Since 2008 the administratively set minimum wage is AZN 75, or 27% of the country’s average monthly wage. Since 2004, the value of the MW has been about this level. In practice the MW is not effectively enforced. Poverty (2.5.2). For 2008, it was officially estimated that less than 13% of the population lived below the national poverty line. This is questioned by various research outcomes, suggesting a more grim picture, though the trend towards less poverty and greater equality cannot be denied. Economic independence is far-away for many women, in particular for many young women. Female-headed households are much more locked in poverty than male-headed households. _Population and fertility (2.6.1)._ Azerbaijan has a rather low and decreasing population growth, currently lower than 0.8% yearly. The 2009 sex ratio at birth is 1.13 male/female. The total fertility rate (slightly above 2.0 children per woman) and the adolescent fertility rate (44 per 1,000) are rather low but the adolescent rate is increasing. Early marriage is uncommon but increasing too. _Health (2.6.2)._ In 2007, the number of people in Azerbaijan living with HIV was estimated at 7,800. Though HIV/AIDS is much more a men’s disease, female risk groups include trafficked women and girls and injecting drug users. Levels of public awareness of HIV/AIDS are very low, as is the case for knowledge on contraceptive prevalence. Health disparities are large, including urban – rural divides. _Women’s labour market share (2.6.3)._ Women make up nearly half of the country’s labour force. In 2008 five of the 15 industries showed a female share above this average. Nearly half of all women employed could be found at the bottom of the labour market, in elementary occupations. Among legislators, senior officials and managers the female share was with 6% very low, but women made up majorities among professionals (54%) and among technicians and associate professionals (53%). _Literacy (2.7.1)._ The adult literacy rate –those age 15 and over that can read and write—in 1999-2006 was 98.7%, with hardly any gender gap: 99.0% for men and 98.3% for women. In 2007 literacy rate for 15-24-year-olds stood at 99.9%; young females even scored 100%. Education of girls (2.7.2). In 2006 the combined gross enrollment rate in education was 66.2%, divided in 65.3% for females and 67.2% for males. In the 2000s school life for girls has been prolonged substantially. Net enrollment in primary education was for 2006 set at 83.3% for girls and for boys 86.2% for boys; in secondary education these rates were 76.4% and 79.2%. Beyond the age of 16, enrollment rates drop off sharply, with 13% of young adults in tertiary education. In 2006-2007, female students made up 47% of all tertiary enrolled. _Female skill levels (2.7.3)._ Gender differences in the country’s education structure are rather small. Women are less represented at the highest level, but more at the second highest level. Women 25-29 of age are highest educated. Especially for women a serious underutilization of skills is at hand. We estimate the size of the target group of DECISIONS FOR LIFE for Azerbaijan at about 90,000 girls and young women working in urban areas in commercial services. _Wages (2.8.1)._ We found for 2008 large differences between wages across industries, as well as a large gender pay gap, totaling 43% -- fitting in the picture of a highly segmented labour market. Remarkably small was the gender pay gap in wholesale and retail, where men had quite low earnings. _Working conditions (2.8.2)._ Overall, gender differences in hours worked are small. Nearly one in four women works parttime i.e. less than 31 hours per week. In 2008, in eight of 15 industries the average monthly hours of females were longer than those of males, in four industries even considerably.

WP 77 - An overview of women’s work and employment in Mozambique

*Management summary* This report provides information on Mozambique on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. History (2.1.1). After Mozambique gained its independence from Portugal in 1975, a civil war seriously frustrated the country’s development. After the first free elections in 1994, strong economic growth on a free-market base created room for combatting notably rural poverty. International donors have especially been supportive of Mozambican projects for women’s empowerment and gender mainstreaming. From 2004 on, the process of pro-poor growth seems to stagnate. Though income inequality is relatively low, the country remains one of the world’s poorest. Governance (2.1.2). Mozambique for the last 15 years has had a rather stable political record. Though in the 2000s government planning focuses strongly on governance, the country’s record here is mixed. The formal justice system remains inaccessible to most of the poor, which works disadvantageous for women. Domestic violence and discrimination against women are widespread. Prospects (2.1.3). Mozambique may escape the worst effects of the current financial crisis, as it is relatively insulated from its direct effects. The main risk arises from the country’s dependency on development aid. Communication (2.2). Over 3.3 million cell phones are already in use, one to each six Mozambicans. Internet coverage is still low, with in 2007 about 1% of the population as users. Radio is the most utilized medium, though male access to radio broadcasts is 1.5 times higher than female. The sectoral labour market structure (2.3). In 2002-03, nearly 90% of the economically active women worked in agriculture. Of the other 430,000 women, about 160,000 received a wage. The share of women in wage employment in non-agricultural sector was nearly 20%. Legislation (2.4.1). Mozambique has ratified the core ILO Labour Conventions, and its laws are non-discriminatory. Some steps have been taken to guarantee compliance. The 2007 Labour Code lays down rights to paid maternity leave, equal pay, vocational training, etc. Labour relations (2.4.2). Overall union density in the formal sector can be estimated at 20%, and female density at 17%. The two union confederations, OTM-CS and CONSILMO, are ITUC affiliates. Enforcement of labour laws is often inadequate, weakening union positions at company level. ITUC reports notably file complaints over women receiving lower pay than men for work of equal value. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). A system of yearly uplifted national minimum wages exists for various sectors, varying from 105 to 206% of the average wage in the formal sector. The minimum wage is reported to be widely ignored. Poverty (2.5.2). According to UN estimates, in 2000-06 90% of the Mozambican population lived on USD 2 or less a day. Though in its early stages judged successful, the government’s poverty reduction strategy seems to stagnate in the 2000s, especially in the rural areas. Poverty distribution is heavily gendered, with female-headed households as most vulnerable group. Population and fertility (2.6.1). In recent years the population growth rate has fallen, to 1.8% in 2008, corresponding with high infant and child mortality as well as high HIV/AIDS prevalence. Yet, the total fertility rate (5.2%) and the adolescent fertility rate (155 per 1,000) remain high. HIV/AIDS (2.6.2). The Mozambican HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is, though maybe falling, with nearly 12% in 2007, high. Both because of their level of infection and their position of carers for sick family members, the burden of HIV/AIDS falls mainly on women. Orphanage is a huge and even growing problem, and ruins the prospects in life of many girls. Women’s labour market share (2.6.3). With 83% in 2007, the overall labour partication rate of the 15-64 of age (LPR or EPOP) is comparatively very high, and with 89% for women even higher. In 2002-03, about 160,000 women were in wage employment, about 18% of all employed in the formal sector. Agriculture (2.6.4). Agriculture provides employment and income for 80% of the Angolan population. Female-heads of households in rural areas prove to be particularly constrained, both in time and in income sources. Maufacturing (2.6.5). Prioritising mega projects has frustrated the development of a small-scale manufacturing sector in Mozambique, which has been detrimental for women’s employment.Commerce (2.6.6). The expansion of small-scale commerce has recently been hampered by legal problems. Formal retailing is expanding, which may open up perspectives for female wage employment. Services (2.6.7). Commercial services have been growing considerably in the 2000s. Shortages of skilled labour, envisaged for various professional services, may open up opportunities for young females if the capacity of local secondary and university education can be expanded. Government (2.6.8). Female participation in civil service seems to lag behind, which seems to do with practices favouring (married) men both in hiring and in payment. Literacy (2.7.1). In 2006, the overall literacy rate for adult women was an estimated 36%, just over half men’s rate. The 2007 the literacy rate among young women was 48%: though low in international perspective, a strong advance compared to a decade earlier. Education of girls and young women (2.7.2). After a period of strong growth, the enrollment of Mozambican girls in primary education in 2006 reached 73%. Yet, with less than 15% girls’ enrollment in secondary education remains very low. The female share in higher education is very low too. Female skill levels (2.7.3). In 2003, about 20,000 of Mozambican female employees were highly skilled and 160,000 skilled. We estimate the current size of the target group of DECISIONS FOR LIFE for Mozambique at about 70,000 young women in wage employment, while another 30,000 will enter into such employment in the next five years. Wages (2.8.1). It has been estimated that skilled workers in rural areas earn about 20% more than unskilled workers. In urban areas skilled and highly skilled workers may earn about 50% respectively 100% more than unskilled. Collective agreements are highly segmented. Working conditions (2.8.2). Little is available in writing on working conditions in Mozambique. Indications of employers’ HR practices (2.8.3). A 2004 survey indicated that HR practices of larger firms remained personal, informal, but also topdown. The results showed a reliance on personal networks for recruitment and on informal training structures.

WP 82 - An overview of women’s work and employment in Malawi

*Management Summary* This report provides information on Malawi on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. History (2.1.1). Malawi is one of the world’s least developed and most densely populated countries. After 30 years of dictatorship after independence in 1964, the country’s population in 1994 voted for a multiparty democracy. The successive administrations till recently maintained a pro-western line. Governance (2.1.2). The government generally respects human rights, though restrictions of freedom of assembly, speech and press occur. Traditional justice forums have been formally suspended, but they continue to throw a shadow over women’s emancipation. The physical integrity of women is not sufficiently protected. Press reports of rape arrests and convictions are an almost daily occurrence. Sexual harassment is not specifically prohibited by law. Prospects (2.1.3). In 2008-09, Malawi’s economy shows a growth spurt. It seems largely insulated from the global downturn, most likely due to a small financial sector and limited FDI inflows. Communication (2.2). In 2008, 15% of all inhabitants were cell phone users. Internet coverage is rapidly growing, though with in 2008 2.3% as users still low. Nearly 15% of the population may have access to the Internet. Unless government restrictions, independent (paper) media are active. TV coverage is low. The sectoral labour market structure (2.3). In 2005, nearly 90% of all employed women worked in agriculture, against 9% in services, broadly defined. About 13% of the labour force worked in the formal sector. Female unemployment nearly doubled male unemployment, and was with 28-38% highest in the two largest cities. Also, unemployment was high among those with completed secondary and higher education, again especially among females. Legislation (2.4.1). Malawi has ratified the core ILO Labour Conventions, but recognition procedures may hamper union organizing. Strike procedures are cumbersome. Labour of children under the age of 14 is forbidden, but widespread. Labour relations and wage-setting (2.4.2). Wage setting is traditionally heavy influenced by governmental pressure for wage restraint. 2008 estimates point at a union density of about 25%, if potential union membership is limited to the formal sector. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). There are two statutory minimum wage rates, of which the urban rate accounts for 20-25% of average wages in the urban formal sector. Between 2000-2008, the SMW upratings did nearly keep pace with consumer price inflation. Poverty (2.5.2). Whereas in 1997-98 65% lived below the national poverty line, this share gradually fell to 40% in 2007. In 2005, 22% lived below the ultra poor poverty line, and could not meet daily food standards. Poverty is gendered: on average, female-headed households earned only 60% of the annual income of male-headed households. Population and fertility (2.6.1). Population growth has fallen slightly, to an expected 2.4% in 2009. With 6.6 children per woman the total fertility rate in 2006 was very high, though some sources project a fall to below 6. The adolescent fertility rate, 178 per 1,000, also remains high. The average marriage age is low: by 2006 about two third of the girls and young women 15-29 of age were married. HIV/AIDS (2.6.2). Malawi has a rather high HIV/AIDS infection rate, though it fell from 14.4% in 2003 to 11.9% in 2007. In that year, 930,000 inhabitants lived with HIV. There is some evidence of behaviour changes than can reduce the risk of HIV infection, mainly among young people. Women’s labour market share (2.6.3). In 2005, women’s overall share in employment was 48%. Women’s share in larger private companies was highest in construction, and low in manufacturing. It was 20-28% in commerce, finance and business, and 30% in social and community services, including government. The share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector was in 2008 15%. Agriculture (2.6.4). Agricultural productivity is low, slowly rising and extremely vulnerable to climatic extremes. Young women with more education living in urban areas and trying to make a career cannot rely on a “fall-back scenario” in which they can go back to their families living from agriculture. Mining and manufacturing (2.6.5). There is no significant manufacturing sector, industry is mainly based on agro-processing and textiles. Commerce (2.6.6). Paid female employment in formal sector commerce is rather limited, but 30-35% of women working informally in urban areas do so in commerce, implying that 27-31% of all females employed in urban settings may work in this sector. Services (2.6.7). About 30% of the total female urban workforce do so in commercial services and in finance and other business. The sector at large may offer interesting job opportunities for young women, also because of the relatively high earnings. Government (2.6.8). Government in Malawi has always been regarded as an attractive employer, and for young women that still may be the case. Yet, in the near future vacancies will be limited. Literacy (2.7.1). The adult literacy rate –those age 15 and over that can read and write-- was in 2006 66%, but for females 10%points lower. In that year the youth literacy rate was 78%, and 73% for females aged 15-24 years. Education of girls and young women (2.7.2). In 2005, the net enrollment rate in primary education was 73%, with girls 6%points higher than boys. The primary completion rate was with 55% in 2007 much lower, with girls just 1%point higher than boys. In 2006, secondary education enrollment was only 11%, with girls at 13%. Although Malawi has four universities, the total enrollment rate in tertiary education may be 1-1.5%. Women to men parity at universities is only about 50%. Female skill levels (2.7.3). The average skill levels of the population are low. Malawi is an exception, where skill levels of women are even lower than those of males. In 2006, 22% of all males aged 15 and over had at least secondary education completed, against 12% of females. We estimate the current size of our target group at about 10,000 girls and young women, working in urban areas in formal labour in commercial services; including informal labour may add an additional 30,000. Wages (2.8.1). An overview of yearly remuneration in larger private companies revealed huge differences, with earnings in financial services 25 times those in agriculture, construction and real estate. Working conditions (2.8.2). Data on working conditions in Malawi is missing. The official labour inspection capacity is minimal, and the lack of governmental expertise in the working conditions area is immense.

WP 79 - An overview of women’s work and employment in South Africa

*Management Summary* This report provides information on South Africa on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. History (2.1.1). After 1948, the authoritarian system of racial segregation under white minority dominance was formalised and intensified into “grand apartheid”. Skilled jobs were reserved for whites. Forced by the liberalisation struggle led by the ANC and under growing international pressure, in 1989 the apartheid regime pronounced its own death sentence. Since 1994, subsequent ANC administrations govern, first with a free-market economic strategy (GEAR), later with a stronger public sector orientation. From 2004 on, the GDP-per-person-employed growth pattern has been volatile. Governance (2.1.2). After 1994, new social movements emerged, often adressing governmental failures. These movements, notably the women’s movement, maintain a complex relationship with the mainstream of the nationalist movement based on the anti-apartheid struggle. With the 2009 elections, women representation in parliament increased to 43%. Prospects (2.1.3). The global economic and financial crisis has seriously hit the South African economy, with in the first half year of 2009 a fall in employment of 360,000 compared to a year earlier. The economy remains vulnerable, especially for falling global commodities demand. Communication (2.2). In 2007, 42.3 million cell phones were in use, nine on each ten South Africans. In 2008 nearly 10% of the population used the Internet. Freedom of press is rather well-guaranteed. Female sources are rarely used for news broadcasting. The sectoral labour market structure – The long-term development (2.3.1). After rapid growth in female employment from 1970 on, in 1995-2000 growth in the formal sector slowed down. Afterwards, it remained limited to commerce, finance and community and related services. The sectoral labour market structure – Formal and informal employment (2.3.2) After growing quickly between 1995 and 2003, informal employment stabilized. In 2007, 27% of the total workforce, 38% of the African workforce and 34% of all employed women worked in the informal sector. Facing that about 30% of all formal sector workers does not have a written contract, and with many in temporary or casual labour, we estimate for 2007 the share of core workers at 5.2 million, 38% of the labour force at large. The sectoral labour market structure – Unemployment (2.3.3). Unemployment is especially high among African women and youngsters. Recently unemployment of African women (according to the official narrow definition) stood at 31%, and unemployment of young women at 52%. Nearly half of all unemployed women were new entrants to the labour market. Legislation (2.4.1). South Africa has ratified the core ILO Labour Conventions, and its laws are non-discriminatory. Its labour legislation is highly codified and complicated. Labour relations (2.4.2). 2008 estimates point at union densities of 24% over all employed, with 20% female density, or 31% in the formal sector against 3% in the informal sector. After a series of mergers, three union confederations are in place, COSATU, SACOTU and CONSAWU, all ITUC affiliates. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). For nine vulnerable sectors, the Minister of Labour issues minimum wage determinations, with levels between 19 to 72% of average monthly wages in the respective sectors. The lowest minimum wages are set at 125% of the upper poverty line. Jointly with the minimum wage floors in collective agreements at industry level, 85% of the female labour force is covered by regulations laying down minimum wages. Non-compliance with minimum wages is generally a large problem. Poverty (2.5.2). For 2000-06, it has been estimated that 43% of the population lived under the poverty line of USD 2 a day. Between 1995-2000, poverty grew among the African population. From 2002 on, with the expansion of social grants payments, poverty decreased. Especially where access to basic services is still limited, the burden of poverty falls heavily on women and girls. In 2006, South Africa ranked 125th on the human development index (HDI), 49 places below its GDP per capita rank. Population and fertility (2.6.1). Due to the HIV/AIDS prevalence and to emigration, population growth rate is falling and, with 0.3% in 2008, quite low. The total fertility rate (2.4 children per woman) and the adolescent fertility rate (54 per 1,000) are also comparatively low. HIV/AIDS (2.6.2). In 2007, about 5.7 million South African people lived with HIV, and the HIV/AIDS prevalence rate for those aged 15-49 was estimated at 18%. New HIV infections disproportionately affect young poor females, mostly African. Yet, progress is going on in the struggle against the pandemic; recently a decrease of HIV prevalence among the 15-24 of age has been found. Women’s labour market share (2.6.3). The overall labour partication rate of the 15-64 of age is only 57%, and for women 50%. The female share in the formal sector was in 2007 40%, and in the informal sector 55%. We estimate the current size of the target group of DECISIONS FOR LIFE for South Africa at about 1.4 million girls and young women 15-29 of age working in urban areas in commercial services. Agriculture (2.6.4). Large commercial enterprises dominate agriculture, and the employment share of agriculture is only about 8%. Thus, young women living in cities and trying to make a career rarely can rely on a “fall-back scenario” in which they can go back to their families living from agriculture. Mining and manufacturing (2.6.5). Since the late 1990s, much manufacturing work have been outsourced and casualised, and manufacturing has become a less promising source of employment for women. The official figures indicate that still one-third of manfacturing employment is female. Commerce (2.6.6). Though 1970-2007 wholesale and retail trade was the largest grower, 2007-’09 witnessed a serious fall in employment, especially hitting African women and men. In the 1990s practices of casualisation and externationalisation of labour accelerated in the retail sector. Services (2.6.7). Already since 1970, finance, insurance and other business services was the fastest growing industry. Between 2007 and April – June 2009, employment growth continued, and even speeded up for women. The government has labeled call centres and tourism especially promising sectors, and they seem to realise their potential. Government (2.6.8). In the course of the 2000s budgetary constraints lowered employment prospects in the public sector. Analyses show monthly wages of public sector workers being higher than comparable wages in the private sector at large. They also learn that the public sector has moved faster to ensure wage equity in terms of gender and population group than the private sector. Literacy (2.7.1). The adult literacy rate –those age 15 and over that can read and write—was in 1999-2006 88%. A gender gap is small or non-existent in literacy. In 2007, the literacy rate for 15-24 year-olds was set at 95%. Education of girls and young women (2.7.2). Enrollment rates in all educational types are highest for girls. For 2007, net enrollment in primary education was 91%, with 92% for girls, though in 2000 both figures were 5%points higher. Also for 2007, gross enrollment in secondary education was 87%, with 89% for girls. For 2005, the enrollment rate for tertiary education was 15.5%, and 17% for young women. Female skill levels (2.7.3). Whereas in 2009 50% of the female employed had completed secondary or tertiary education, the equivalent male share got stuck at 45.5%. Nearly 21% of employed women had completed their tertiairy education, 4%points more than men. African women have on average also attained a higher educational level than African men, both among employed and unemployed. Wages (2.8.1). Overall wage inequality grew between 1995 and 1998/2000, but reversed afterwards, though the earnings differences between population groups still grew. Since 2000, the gender pay gap has narrowed, but it is with 25-35% still wide. Higher education is very important in determining wages, with a vocational education, a degree and a postgraduate degree being most important. A vocational qualification was found to be more important for higher wages for females than for males. Average earnings in the formal sector are highest in utilities and transport etc., and lowest in wholesale and retail, and construction. Working conditions (2.8.2). A number of occupational health and safety problems persist, like resistant tuberculosis among mine and health care workers. Working hours are quite long, with in 2009 25% of women and 35% of men working more than 45 hours per week. Indications of employers’ HR practices (2.8.3). The major challenge in HR policies is the need to move to employment equity, fair pay and skills development. Early accounts did not find much progress in this field. The adoption of new HR practices in large companies can combine with a strong union presence.

WP 90 - An overview of women's work and employment in India

This report provides information on India on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the workfamily alance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. History (2.1.1). After Independence, Prime Minister (PM) Nehru and the Congress Party pursued socialist-oriented economic policies. After Nehru’s death (1964), policies changed from urban industrial to agricultural development, continuing under PM Indira Ghandi. From 1984 on, PM Rajiv Ghandi encouraged science and technology and started to depart from socialist policies. After his death in 1991, a liberalisation process was put in motion, which has been supported by various government coalitions. From 2003 on, the Indian economy has shown high macro-economic growth fi gures. Governance (2.1.2). In spite of a democratic system of government, a progressive Constitution and many laws to protect women’s rights, serious problems with compliance remain, especially in maintaining human and women’s rights. The position of women in politics is weak, though at top level there were and are remarkable exceptions. With the 2009 elections, women representation in the lower house of parliament increased to 11%. In recent years many women have been confronted with domestic violence and sexual harassment. Prospects (2.1.3). The global economic crisis has had a rather modest impact on India’s economy, and the prospects for the country’s rebound seem bright. Yet, in 2008-09 the decline in manufacturing exports has caused serious problems for in particular women. Communication (2.2). Telephone use is rapidly switching from fi xed line to cellular phone networks. In 2009, already 365 of each 1,000 in the population used a cell phone. Internet coverage is growing but still low, with one in 12 surfi ng on the Internet. Television is a popular medium: over half of all households have a TV set. Cable TV proves to have emancipatory force, especially for rural women. The sectoral labour market structure – Population and employment (2.3.1). Being slightly below 36%, women’s Labour Participation Rate (LPR) in 2008 was extremely low, whereas with 85% the male rate was high. LPRs hardly changed in the 2000s. The sectoral labour market structure – Formal and informal employment (2.3.2) Less than 15% of all employed is currently working in the formal (in India: organised) sector, and less than 8% are formal (organised) workers. Just over half of the total labour force is self-employed. In 2008-09 about 50% of all employed worked in agriculture, 20% in manufacturing, and 30% in services. The sectoral labour market structure – Unemployment (2.3.3). In recent years unemployment for women has gone up. Unemployment is highest among youngsters, with for girls and young women in 2006 offi cial unemployment rates between 17 and 22%. Legislation (2.4.1). India has ratifi ed only four of eight core ILO Labour Conventions. In practice workers’ rights are only legally protected for the small minority working in the organised sector. Even formally the freedom of association is limited. Strikes are prohibited in the public sector. Child labour is widespread, and the number of child labourers estimated at 55-60 million. Labour relations and wage-setting (2.4.2). The trade union landscape in India is complex and diversifi ed. The union movement opposed liberalisation taking place after 1991, in which period centralized collective bargaining declined. We found that union membership in the 2000s remained at about 6.5% of the labour force. On average the female share in membership and decision-making remains low. In contrast, strongholds of female organizing have emerged as responses to problems in informal labour. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). There is a complex system of statutory minimum wages (MW) in place, with 1,232 occupational and sectoral minimum wage rates. In practice, only average wages in the manufacturing part of the organised sector are above the MW level. In 2004-05 80% of casual workers and 31% of regular salaried/wage workers did not receive the MW, with the proportions of females even larger. Innovative is the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), a combination of a minimum wage provision and a public employment scheme. Poverty (2.5.2). For 2005, it has been estimated that 76% of the population lived under the poverty line of USD 2 a day, and that 42% had to make ends meet with an income below USD 1.25 a day. The poverty gap remains relatively large. In and through the nationwide liberalisation process, the seven states with the lowest incomes are lagging behind. In 2006, India ranked 132nd on the human development index (HDI), six places below its GDP per capita rank. Population and fertility (2.6.1). For over two decades the population growth rate is falling, but further decrease seems to stagnate. For 2005-2010 the growth projection is 1.5% per year. Due to the preference for sons the country’s sex ratio is 1.12 male/female. The total fertility rate (2.8-2.9 children per woman) and the adolescent fertility rate (90 per 1,000) are rather high. In 2006 the median age for women at first marriage was 17.8 years, and by then 42% of all Indian women aged 20-24 gave birth before age 20. Health (2.6.2). In 2007, about 2.3 million Indians lived with HIV. Though HIV/AIDS is in India more a man’s disease, there is a shift going on toward women and young people. The country’s health disparities are large, also because of relatively low public expenditure on health. Women’s labour market share (2.6.3). With 19% the female share in the organised sector is low. In both manufacturing and in commercial services about one in six employees was female. The public sector is by far the largest employer in the formal sector, employing 70% of all women engaged in that sector. Agriculture (2.6.4). It is estimated that about 60% of all agricultural operations are handled exclusively by women. Female hourly wage rates in agriculture vary from 50 to 75% of male rates, and are too low to overcome absolute poverty. Working conditions are often appalling. Young women living in cities and trying to make a career rarely can rely on a “fall-back scenario” in which they can go back to their families living from agriculture. Mining and manufacturing (2.6.5). Since the early 1990s, informalisation and casualisation of employment and decreasing wage rates show up as main trends. Thus, manufacturing has become a less promising source of employment for women. Services (2.6.6). In the last two decades the service sector share in total employment doubled, and in 2004-2008 employment and export growth have even speeded up. The motor of growth is the IT/BPO industry. Yet, at the same time informalisation has grown: currently over seven in ten service employees are in informal labour. Women may comprise less than one third of the IT/BPO workforce but their share may soon increase. Government (2.6.7). In spite of a recent decline in public sector employment, the share of females are gradually increasing at central, regional and local state levels. Relatively high wages and maternity and sickness benefi ts may make the public service attractive for young women. Literacy (2.7.1). The adult literacy rate –those age 15 and over that can read and write—was in 2007 66%, with a considerable gender gap: the female literacy was 54.5% and the male 77.1%. For 2007 the literacy rate for 15-24-year-olds was set at 82.1%, with a smaller gender difference: 77.1% for young females and 86.7% for young males. Education of girls (2.7.2). Girls are lagging behind in enrollment rates for all educational types. For 2006, combined gross enrollment in education was 61%, with 57.4% for girls. For 2007, international sources set net enrollment in primary education at 90%: 88% for girls and 91% for boys, but the drop-out rates were quite high. In the same year, gross enrollment in secondary education was 57%: 52% for females and 61% for males. And in tertiary education, 13% of the 17-25 of age were enrolled: 11% of females and 16% of males. Female skill levels (2.7.3). The gender gap in educational level of the labour force is immense. Whereas in 2004-05 60% of the female employed was illiterate and 3.7% was graduated, these shares for the males labour force were less than 28% and nearly 8% respectively. Nevertheless, the female shares of graduated were higher than the male shares in banking and finance; real estate and business services, and transport. Among the 15-29 of age, the gender gap was considerably smaller. We estimate the current size of the target group of DECISIONS FOR LIFE for India at about 1.8 million girls and young women 15-29 of age working in urban areas in commercial services. Wages (2.8.1). We found for 2004-05 the very large gender pay gap of 57% in the formal (organised) sector. Comparisons with the unorganised sector showed that wages rates here were 20-30% of those in the organised sector, though wage rates varied widely across states and activities. Among casual workers, gender pay gaps showed up of 35-37%. Working conditions (2.8.2). In 2000 female employees in the organised sector made longer hours than their male colleagues: an average working week of 48.1 hours against 46.3. Between 2000 and 2006, the average working week of females has been shortened by 1.3 hours, whereas the male working week has been prolonged by 0.5 hours.

WP 93 - An overview of women's work and employment in Kazakhstan

*Management summary* This report provides information on Kazakhstan on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. _History (2.1.1)._ Under the Soviet regime, the Kazahs had a hard time, initially not improving with the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the 2000s, based on its mineral wealth and high oil prices, the economy boomed, followed by a nosedive in 2008. Governance (2.1.2). Kazakhstan is a republic with a parliamentary system dominated by president Nazarbayev and his party. Recently the government’s human rights record remained poor. Though constitution and law provide for equal rights and freedoms for men and women, enforcement of human and women’s rights is weak. Women’s participation in politics and governance structures is low. _Prospects (2.1.3)._ The global economic crisis has a considerable impact on Kazakhstan’s economic and maybe social prospects. The government had to massively support the banking system. Though official (un)employment and wage fi gures for 2009 do not yet point at serious consequences for the population, projections until 2015 stick to low growth rates, which among other things may endanger the government’s ambituous diversifi cation program. _Communication (2.2)._ Though the coverage of fi xed telephone connections has recently increased, this is dwarfed by the expansion of the incidence of cell phones, to about one per inhabitant in 2008. By that year, 146 per 1,000 were Internet users. Nearly all households have a TV set. The government uses a variety of means to control the media and limit freedom of expression. _The sectoral labour market structure – Population and employment (2.3.1)._ Between 2001 and 2008 a growing ”formalisation” of the of the labour market took place, lifting the share of employees to about two-third. In particular women’s employment witnessed strong growth. Reaching 75% in 2008, women’s Labour Participation Rate (LPR) was rather high and 92% of men’s. _The sectoral labour market structure – Unemployment (2.3.2)_ In the 2000s unemployment fell from over 10% to below 7%, with female unemployment rates remaining one third above male. Youth employment is rather low, the highest unemoplyment rates are among the female 25-29 aged. _Legislation (2.4.1)._ Kazakhstan has ratifi ed the eight core ILO Labour Conventions. The Constitution provides for the freedom of association and the right to strike, though notably the latter right is subject to numerous legal limitations. In the informal economy the government did not enforce contracts or labour legislation. _Labour relations and wage-setting (2.4.2)._ The union movement of Kazakhstan consists of both “traditional” and, after independence newly created, “independent” trade unions. In the 1990s membership of in particular the traditional confederation fell heavily. In 2008, union density may have been about 50% (paid employees). Based on formally tripartite structures, the yearly General Agreement is the basis for national, regional and sectoral collective agreements. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). In 2009 the national monthly minimum wage, set by law, was 13,717 Tenge, or 23% of the country’s average monthly wage. Since 2004, the gap between the minimum and average wage has slightly decreased. Poverty (2.5.2). The country’s growth pattern has been pro-poor, with in the (early) 2000s poverty falling according to all yardsticks. For 2004, it was estimated that 16% of the population lived below the national poverty line. Income inequality is relatively limited. Nevertheless, an in-depth study revealed considerable housing poverty and poor quality of basic infrastructure services. _Population and fertility (2.6.1)._ Kazakstan’s population showed a sharp downward trend from 1989 to 2002, followed by a modest growth of on average 0.9% yearly. The total fertility rate, about 1.9 children per woman, and the adolescent fertility rate (29 per 1,000) are both rather low and stable. Early marriage and early pregnancy do occur, but seem to remain rather limited. _Health (2.6.2)._ In 2007, the number of people in Kazakhstan living with HIV was estimated at 12,000, or 0.7 per 1,000, low in comparison with the rest of the region. The levels of public awareness of HIV/AIDS are low, as is the case for knowledge on contraceptive prevalence among women. General health indicators are still low by international standards. In particular in urban areas, access to essential infrastructure services is limited. _Women’s labour market share (2.6.3)._ Women make up nearly half of the country’s labour force. In 2008 seven of 15 industries showed a female share above this average as well as a female majority. Women are clearly over-represented in four occupational groups at the higher and middle levels, each time with more than a two to one parity; even at the level of legislators, senior officials and managers, the female share of 38% is in international perspective rather high. _Literacy (2.7.1)._ The adult literacy rate –those age 15 and over that can read and write—in 1999-2006 was 97.9%, with a small gender gap: 99.0% for men and 96.7% for women. In 2007 the literacy rate for 15-24-year-olds stood at 99.8%; the young females scored 99.9%. _Education of girls (2.7.2)._ In 2006, the combined gross enrollment rate in education was 91.8%, divided in 88.5% for females and 95.1% for males. Net enrollment in primary education was for 2007 set at 99.4% for girls and 98.6% for boys. Women to men parity in secondary education increased to 97% in 2007. Income differences play a major role in further education after secondary school, though much more young women than young men enroll in universities and colleges. _Female skill levels (2.7.3)._ Women in the employed population have on average a higher educational level than their male colleagues. In contrast, women’s opportunities in work and employment are severely limited by the segmentation of the country’s labour market along regional and gender dimensions. We estimate the current size of the target group of DECISIONS FOR LIFE for Kazakhstan at about 230,000 girls and young women 15-29 of age working in urban areas in commercial services. _Wages (2.8.1)._ We found for 2008 a large gender pay gap, totaling 36%. Further, fi tting in the picture of a highly segmented labour market, wages in Kazakhstan vary largely across sectors, occupational categories, the urban – rural divide, and across regions. _Working conditions (2.8.2)._ Official statistical information concerning working conditions is quite limited. As far as can be traced, gender differences in hours worked are small.

WP 78 - An overview of women’s work and employment in Angola

*Management Summary* This report provides information on Angola on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. History (2.1.1). After Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975, a civil war seriously frustrated the country’s development. After in 2002 the war ended, the MPLA governed as the ruling party, with a large parlementary majority. Recently Angola intensified the exploitation of its rich natural resources, notably its large oil and natural gas deposits. Yet, its GDP growth pattern remains volatile. Unless recent strong economic growth, over half of the population has to make ends meet with less than USD 1 a day. Governance (2.1.2). Angola for the last seven years has had a rather stable political record. The government has committed itself to the MDG3 goals, but gender equality and women’s empowerment have not yet been given high priority. In practice the relationship between NGOs and government is full of tensions. Angola’s human rights record remains poor; corruption continues to be widespread. Prospects (2.1.3). Because of exhaustion of oil reserves, oil revenue is likely to peak between 2011 and 2013. The diversification process the government embarked upon in order to counteract decreasing oil revenues may be threatened by low oil prices. Communication (2.2). In 2007, 3.3 million cell phones are already in use, one to each five Angolans. Internet coverage is still low, with in 2007 about 3% of the population being Internet users. Radio is the medium with the highest coverage. Government controls the only news agency, the only daily paper and the national radio station, whereas the state monopoly on TV broadcasting ended in 2006. The sectoral labour market structure (2.3). In 2000-01, only about 14% of the 15-64 of age economically active worked in the formal sector, as entrepreneurs and wage earners, of which about 23% women. Six out of seven were in the informal sector, of which 55-57% women. We calculated that in 2007 the formal sector had expanded to 970,000, of which over half in civil service and construction. Legislation (2.4.1). Angola has ratified the core ILO Labour Conventions, and its laws are non-discriminatory. The General Labour Law lays down rights to paid maternity leave, equal pay, limited working hours, rest periods, etc. A major weakness, yet, is compliance. Labour relations (2.4.2). 2008 figures may imply an overall 26-28% union density in the formal sector; female union density can be estimated at about 20%. Three union confederations are in place; UNTA-CS and CGSILA are ITUC affiliates. Government influence on collective bargaining seems quite large. The right to strike is strictly regulated. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). A basic national minimum wage exists, with higher rates for the transport, service and manufacturing sectors and for the mining industry, varying from 42 to 51% of the average wage of the formal sector. It remains rather unclear how the yearly uplifts are prepared, communicated and effected. Poverty (2.5.2). Angolan researchers maintained that in 2007 two in three of their compatriots lived on USD 2 or less a day. Income inequality is extremely high. Poverty distribution is also heavily gendered, with female-headed households forming the majority of the very poor households. In 2006, Angola ranked 157th on the human development index (HDI), 50 places below its GDP per capita rank. Population and fertility (2.6.1). Till 2002, birth registration in Angola was mostly lacking, and still population statistics are unreliable. Yet, it is clear that the population growth rate is quite high (average 2.7% in 2001-08), as are the total fertility rate (6.1%) and the adolescent fertility rate (165 per 1,000). HIV/AIDS (2.6.2). The Angolan HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is, with 2.5% (2005), comparatively low. Yet, it may quickly rise as most risk factors are widespread, like the dependent situation of many adolescent goirls and young women. Preventive and therapeutic services are still in their infancy. Women’s labour market share (2.6.3). Though difficult to calculate, the overall labour partication rate of the 15-64 of age (LPR or EPOP) is low and will not exceed 68%, with that of females a few %-points higher. For 2007, women’s share in the formal sector can be estimated at about 28%, or nearly 270,000 women. About one quarter of them can be found in commerce and services. Agriculture (2.6.4). Agriculture provides employment and income for 60-70% of the Angolan population. Many women working in agriculture make extremely long hours. Only a small share is involved in commercial agriculture, of which about a quarter women. Maufacturing (2.6.5). Unless recent growth of small and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises, Angola has a very small manufacturing sector. Commerce (2.6.6). More than four of five Angolan women working in commerce does so informally. Recently, retailing shows a rapid growth, with perspectives for female wage employment. Services (2.6.7). Recently the Angolan government planned to intensify stimulating commercial services, notably tourism and the financial sector. Though investors complain about shortages of skilled employees, this may open up employment opportunities for young women. Government (2.6.8). Government expenditure focuses especially on investments in infrastructure, and building up technical and construction departments. Under these conditions, the share of women in civil service may not exceed 40%, though larger spending on education and health care may open up more opportunities for women. Literacy (2.7.1). In the early 2000s, average literacy rates among (young) women were 54-63%, that is about 75% the rates of men. Among the lowest socio-economic groups, only a minority of women is literate. Education of girls and young women (2.7.2). Statistics on school enrollment in education are rather outdated, but suggest that only about half of all Angolan girls aged 6-11 go to primary school: comparatively a very low share. Especially secondary education shows a wide gap in girls’ participation compared to boys’. There is clearly a need for flexible programs to make up for missed years of schooling of in particular young women. Female skill levels (2.7.3). In 2001-02, about 24,000 of Angolan female employees were highly skilled and 115,000 skilled. We estimate the current size of the target group of DECISIONS FOR LIFE for Angola at about 70,000 young women in wage employment, while another 25,000 will enter into such employment in the next five years. Wages (2.8.1). Any reliable wage information on the Angolan formal sector is lacking, thus emphasizing the importance of the WageIndicator for this country. Working conditions (2.8.2). Likewise, very little is available in writing on working conditions in Angola.

WP 80 - An overview of women’s work and employment in Zambia

*Management Summary* This report provides information on Zambia on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. History (2.1.1). After Zambia gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1964, the Kaunda administration moved towards a one-party system and central planning. With falling copper prices and poor management, and the country’s GDP per capita continuing to fall, in 1991 a multi-party democracy was installed and Kaunda had to retreat. In the 1990s, liberalization and privatisation did not spur economic growth, while corruption grew. In the 2000s Zambia experienced strong growth, though the country remains one of the world’s poorest. Governance (2.1.2). Since 1991 Zambia’s political record has been rather stable. Its human rights record, by contrast, remains rather poor. Especially women and children trafficking is a major problem. The participation of Zambian women in politics is quite limited. Also, they have very limited rights in relation to family matters, including issues related to land ownership. Prospects (2.1.3). Recently Zambia has been confronted with the negative effects of lowering copper prices and with a grave electricity situation. The country may escape the worst effects of the current economic and financial crisis because of its limited integration in the global financial system, though the negative effects on women may be relatively large where their future depends on access to finance. Communication (2.2). Over 2.6 million cell phones are already in use, one to each five Zambians. Internet coverage is still low, with in 2007 about 4% of the population as users. Radio is the most utilized medium. Women constitute only one of six news sources. The sectoral labour market structure (2.3). In 2005, women made up 46% of the total labour force; 49% of those in informal labour, and 137,000 or 27% of those in formal employment. 78% of the economically active women worked in agriculture. The share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector was 28%. Unemployment is mainly caused by an absolute lack of jobs, and is especially high among the young. In 2005, unemployment among girls and young women aged 15-29 in urban areas was 41%. Legislation (2.4.1). Zambia has ratified the core ILO Labour Conventions, but procedural requirements frustrate holding legal strikes. Also, women remain severely disadvantaged in employment and education, notably the overwhelming majority working in the informal economy. Labour relations (2.4.2). Union strength has been weakened over the years. 2006 estimates point at a union density of 60 to 66% in the formal economy, or about 10% of the total labour force. Two union confederations are in place, ZCTU and the much smaller FFTUZ. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). Though many advocate a rise of the current statutory minimum wage (SMW), pointing at the rising costs of living, with Kwacha 268,000 per month the SMW is still at the level set in May 2006. By then, that level varied from 21 to 91% of monthly average earnings in the main industries. Half a year before setting the SMW rate, 35% of paid employees earned less than that rate. Poverty (2.5.2). For 2004-05, it has been estimated that 82% of the population lived under the poverty line of USD 2 per day. Since 1993, the share of the extremely poor has decreased. Yet, especially in rural areas the poverty pattern continues to be detrimental for the future of women and girls. Population and fertility (2.6.1). Population growth has been falling recently, from an average 2.4% in 2000-’07 to an expected 1.9% in 2005-’15. With 6.2 children per women, the total fertility rate remains very high, as does (with 146 per 1,000) the adolescent fertility rate. HIV/AIDS (2.6.2). In 2007, over 1.1 million Zambians lived with HIV, and the HIV/AIDS prevalence rate for those aged 15-49 was estimated at 14%. For women aged 30-39 years the rate was even about 25%. Yet, HIV prevalence among the 15-24 of age is reported to decrease. Official policies stress that the spread of HIV/AIDS is related to domestic violence and poor empowerment of women. Women’s labour market share (2.6.3). The labour partication rate of the 15-64 of age overall is 71%, but only 61% for women. With just over 50%, the 2005 women’s share in employment was highest in agriculture, followed by restaurants and hotels (49%), community, social and personal services (48%), and commerce (45%). Agriculture (2.6.4). The perspectives for agricultural growth are rather bleak. The most female-intensive sub-sectors are also the least skill-intensive. Thus, young women living in urban areas and trying to make a career cannot rely on a “fall-back scenario” in which they can go back to their families living from agriculture. Mining and manufacturing (2.6.5). Trade liberalisation of the 1990s has been disastrous for indigeneous manufacturing industries such as textiles and clothing, and thus notably for females. The competitive position of domestic-owned, small-scale manufacturing remains very weak. Commerce (2.6.6). 95-97% of all women working in commerce did so in the informal sector. In 2005 women made up a minority in all sales jobs, but took half of all high-skilled jobs in commerce. Supermarkets are only a quite limited source of employment for women. Services (2.6.7). Women constitute nearly half of the labour force in commercial services. In 2005 nearly one third could be found in formal employment. Tourism is an expanding source of employment, but the development of international call centres does not seem to take off. Government (2.6.8). The public sector has traditionally been a male stronghold, and still only about one quarter of public servants is female. The public sector seems to have lost its wage premium, especially for the high-skilled. Literacy (2.7.1). The adult literacy rate –those age 15 and over that can read and write—was in 1995-2005 68%. As the female rate was only 60%, a substantial gender gap remains. Recently this gender gap widens, in general as well as among the 15-24 year-olds. Education of girls and young women (2.7.2). For 2007, the net enrollment rate in primary education was over 95%, with girls 1%point higher than boys, but the primary completion rate of girls was 11%points lower: girls make up for the large majority of early school-leavers. With 26% in 2005, the net enrollment rate in secondary education was rather low, with 23.5% notably for girls. Recently in most categories of technical vocational training women outnumbered men, but in regular tertiary education there were twice as many male students Female skill levels (2.7.3). In 2005 64% of the economically active Zambian women were unskilled, nearly 33% had at least completed lower secondary education (skilled), and 66,000 or 3.6% had completed tertiairy education (high-skilled). We estimate the current size of our target group at about 106,000 girls and young women 15-29 of age working in urban areas in commercial services, of which only 20,000 in formal employment. Wages (2.8.1). Earnings vary widely between industries, occupational groups, and urban and rural areas. Earnings of women in formal employment in finance etc. and in community, social and personal services are about four times those in trade etc. and in hotels and restaurants. Education may explain part of the gender pay gap, but discrimination is another factor. Calculated on an hourly earnings basis, the countrywide gender pay gap in 2005 was 45%, and for paid employees 13%. In restaurants and hotels, transport etc., finance etc. and community and other services, the gap was below 20%, but in trade etc. it was 44%. Working conditions (2.8.2). Average working weeks turn out to be quite long in Zambia, for women especially in restaurants and hotels, transport etc., finance etc., and trade etc., in urban areas, and among paid employees and high-skilled. In 2005, about one of five of the employed reported illness (excluding HIV/AIDS), as did a slightly higher share on injury. Workers aged 15-29 reported comparatively much skin problems as well as wounds and deep cuts.

WP 97 - An overview of women's work and employment in Zimbabwe

This report provides information on Zimbabwe on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. History (2.1.1). After independence in 1980, initially the government invested in education and health. Soon, tensions between ZANU and ZAPU led to violence, ending by the formation of ZANU-PF, led by Robert Mugabe. His government growingly took refuge to violation of human and trade union rights. The creation of MDC as an opposition party, in 1999, was obviously a catalyst for the country’s most violent decade in which Mugabe and his cronies tried to retain power by all means. As a result, large parts of the economy have been destroyed and repeatedly a majority of the population of the once prosperous country has to rely on food aid. In 2008, a Global Political Agreement has been reached, which since 2009 is implemented by a government of national unity (GNU). Governance (2.1.2). Zimbabwe is a republic. In 2009 militia and “war veterans” trained by ZANU-PF continued to harass and intimidate members of the opposition, trade unions, and others. Corruption is widespread. Female participation in politics is low but growing. The life of rural women is dominated by traditional practices, which grant very few rights to women. There is no specifi c legislation against domestic violence. Women encounter signifi cant discrimination in ownership rights. Prospects (2.1.3). The 2009-10 economic recovery remains fragile and depends on the containment of political violence. It can be questioned whether the GNU is able to protect in particular ZCTU trade unionists adequately, though there are hopeful signs as well. Communication (2.2). The number of cell phones in use has grown to 138 per 1,000 of the population in 2008. By that year, there were 119 Internet users per 1,000. Freedom of speech and of press remain limited, though in May 2010 some openings were visible. As the Internet has remained unrestricted, many Zimbabweans use to this medium to access independent news. The sectoral labour market structure – Formal and informal employment (2.3.1). With an economy in disarray, reliable labour market statistics are lacking. Formal employment likely has decreased between 1999-2009 from 1.3 to 0.6 million. 80-94% of the working age population may have only work from which they derive an income for a few hours per day or even per week. The sectoral labour market structure – Migration (2.3.2) Recently about four million Zimbabweans are estimated to live abroad with the majority leaving in the past 5-6 years, mainly in search of basic food and health care. Many migrated to South Africa, among which 40-50% women. They are highly vulnerable to exploitation. Legislation (2.4.1). Zimbabwe has ratifi ed the eight core ILO Labour Conventions. Yet, an ILO Commission of Inquiry in 2009 concluded to systematic, and even systemic, violation of the Conventions. Mechanisms for organising legal strikes are extremely complicated. Labour relations and wage-setting (2.4.2). In spite of continuous harassment and intimidation of offi cers and members, the ZCTU organises over 40% of the formal employed. 70% of the about 3 million-strong workforce of the informal sector is member of the ZCIEA, created by the ZCTU. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). In November 2009 there were 28 sectoral minimum wages, varying from USD 30 to 391 per month. All remained below the offi cial poverty line of USD 552 in 2009. Poverty (2.5.2). After independence poverty fi rst diminished, but from the early 1990s on rose till in the 2000s over 80% lived below the national poverty threshold as well as below the international USD 2 per day poverty line. Poverty has been concentrated in the rural areas and has been feminized. Recent estimates conclude to more than 85% living below the national poverty line, meaning that 10 million or more Zimbabweans live in desperate poverty. In the course of the 2000s, large parts of the population had to take refuge to remittances from migrants. Population and fertility (2.6.1). From 2002-2008, due to both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and migration population has decreased slowly, a decrease most likely speeding up in 2009 and early 2010. The total fertility rate is about 3.7 children per woman. The adolescent fertility rate is with 101 per 1,000 rather high; early marriage is widespread. With on average 45 years (44 years for women), life expectancy at birth is one of the world’s lowest. Health (2.6.2). In 2007 there were an estimated 1.2-1.4 million suffering from HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe. Since 2001 there is a downward trend in the HIV prevalence rate due to a combination of high mortality and changes in sexual behaviour. The country has over 1.3 million orphans of which one million orphaned by AIDS. AIDS-related illness and death are acutely threatening the viability of many households. In the last decade the health infrastructure has collapsed, and the vulnerability for epidemics like cholera increased. Women’s labour market share (2.6.3). Around 2000, women made up nearly half of the country’s labour force, with majorities in agriculture, services and government. Among paid employees the female shares were much lower. These shares were also comparatively low in the higher-ranked and administrative occupations. Literacy (2.7.1). The adult literacy rate –-those age 15 and over that can read and write—in 1999-2006 was 90.7%: 93.7% for men and 87.6% for women. In 2007 the literacy rate for 15-24-year-olds stood at 98.3%: 97.9% for young men and an even higher 98.7% for young women. Education of girls (2.7.2). Though in the early 2000s enrollment in education was rather high, enrollment rates at all levels have fallen considerably due to internal displacement, emigration of teachers, and sheer poverty. Girls are more likely than boys to leave or not begin school. Most recemtly access to public education seems to improve. Female skill levels (2.7.3). A rough indication is that about 60% of women in the current labour force may be called unskilled, 37.5% skilled and 2.5% highly skilled. We estimate the current size of the target group of DECISIONS FOR LIFE for Zimbabwe at about 35,000 girls and young women 15-29 of age working in urban areas in commercial services. If the country’s recovery takes off rather succesfully, another 60-70,000 may be added in the next fi ve years. Wages (2.8.1). Older wage data suggests a rather large wage dispersion across industries, with low wage rates for occupations with a high share of women, pointing at a considerable gender pay gap. Working conditions (2.8.2). Older data indicates small gender differences in hours worked, with on average long hours for paid employees. Most likely current overall patterns are more like those of the self-employed, working shorter and irregular hours.

WP 81 - An overview of women’s work and employment in Botswana

*Management Summary* This report provides information on Botswana on behalf of the implementation of the DECISIONS FOR LIFE project in that country. The DECISIONS FOR LIFE project aims to raise awareness amongst young female workers about their employment opportunities and career possibilities, family building and the work-family balance. This report is part of the Inventories, to be made by the University of Amsterdam, for all 14 countries involved. It focuses on a gender analysis of work and employment. History (2.1.1). Shortly after impoverished Botswana gained independence in 1966, the discovery of rich deposits of diamonds transformed its prospects radically. A market economy combined with state investment in infrastructure, health and education led between 1966-2000 to an average per capita GDP growth of nearly 7%, followed by fluctuating growth. Yet, income inequality is high and rising. Governance (2.1.2). Botswana has been praised as a rather unique example of an enduring multi-party democracy with a record of sound economic management. It has voluntarily abandoned foreign aid. The representation of women in politics is remarkably weak, with after the 2009 general elections only four women (6.5%) in parliament. Violence against women seems widespread. Prospects (2.1.3). Botswana may be able counteract effects of the current economic and financial crisis to some extent through its cautious financial policies and low external debt, but the worldwide slump in the demand for diamonds may have serious consequences. Communication (2.2). Over four of each five inhabitants are cell phone users. Internet coverage is still low, with in 2007 about 5% of the population as users.TV and radio have considerable coverage. The sectoral labour market structure (2.3). In 2005-06, 25% of all 257,000 employed women worked in agriculture, against 64% in services, broadly defined. About 39% worked in the informal sector. Female unemployment is higher than male, and stood in 2006 narrowly defined at nearly 20% and broadly defined at 38%. We calculated that narrowly defined 31% and broadly defined 48% of girls and women 15-29 of age living in urban areas were unemployed. Legislation (2.4.1). Botswana has ratified the core ILO Labour Conventions, but in practice the right of association is quite restricted. Effecting the right to strike is nearly impossible. Many employers still trample workers’ rights, and the government is either unable or unwilling to confront them. Labour relations and wage-setting (2.4.2). The union movement is rather weak, and unions mostly small. 2008 estimates point at a union density of 20% in the formal economy, or 10% of the total labour force. Actually BFTU is the only union confederation, with a separate public sector federation being set up. Collective bargaining coverage is formally 98%, but employers unilaterally decide the content of most collective agreements. Government and employers’ policies of wage restraint led to real wage growth during 1980-2003 being on average less than 1.3% yearly, and in the 2000s even negative. The statutory minimum wage (2.5.1). The current statutory minimum wage (SMW) is, with Pula 2.10 – 3.80 hourly, set in April 2008. It does not provide a decent standard of living for workers and their families, and was only about 20% of the 2008 average wage in the formal sector. Poverty (2.5.2). By 2002-03, 30% of the population lived below a national poverty line. Nearly two of three poor were rural, and most of them were women. In many ways female-headed households prove to be vulnerable, in rural but also in urban areas. Population and fertility (2.6.1). Population growth has been falling, most likely to an expected 1.2% yearly in 2005-’15, with even a fall of the rural population. With 3.2 children per woman, the actual total fertility rate is still rather high, but (with 51 per 1,000) the adolescent fertility rate is quite low. Mainly because of the effects of HIV/AIDS life expectancy is continuously decreasing. HIV/AIDS (2.6.2). Botswana has the second highest HIV/AIDS infection rate in the world. In 2007, 300,000 inhabitants lived with HIV, and the HIV/AIDS prevalence rate for those aged 15-49 was estimated at 23%. Incidence and consequences of HIV/AIDS are biased against women. In recent years, HIV infection levels among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Botswana are decreasing. Women’s labour market share (2.6.3). In 2008, women’s overall share in paid employment was 41%, and highest in health and social work (65%), followed by other community services and finance (both 62%). 84% of all women in paid employment worked in services, broadly defined. Agriculture (2.6.4). Long-term productivity growth in agriculture has been less than 2% yearly. Agricultural development programmes have left highly unequal ownership relations intact. Thus, young women living in urban areas and trying to make a career cannot rely on a “fall-back scenario” in which they can go back to their families living from agriculture. Mining and manufacturing (2.6.5). Besides flourishing mining, manufacturing exports –notably of textiles-- encounter large problems, and the perspectives of manufacturing in Botswana remain quite insecure. Commerce (2.6.6). The wholesale and retail sector turns out to be a stable grower. In the sector at large, 45% of the workforce operated informally, in majority women. Supermarkets seem to remain a limited source of employment for women. Services (2.6.7). Transport /distribution and tourism (hotels and catering) seems to have the best employment perspectives. Expansion perspectives for the finance sector seem insecure in view of the current crisis. Government (2.6.8). Government is an attractive employer for (young) women, with comparatively high salaries, quite some high-level jobs, and employment stability. Local government jobs may be of particular interest for women in urban villages and rural areas. Literacy (2.7.1). The adult literacy rate --those age 15 and over that can read and write—was in 1995-2005 82%, and for females a fraction higher. Recently the youth literacy rate was 10%points higher, and even over 95% for females aged 15-24 years. Education of girls and young women (2.7.2). In 2005, the net enrollment rate in primary education was 84%, with girls 3%points higher than boys, while the primary completion rate of girls was over 7%points higher. With notably 69% for girls in 2009, actual enrollment in secondary education is high. In regular tertiary education by 2009 female participation lagged nearly 20% behind that of men. Female skill levels (2.7.3). In 2006, less than 12% of economically active Botswana women were unskilled, and 60% had completed second level second stage education. About 10,000 or 3.2% had completed tertiary education (high-skilled). We estimate the current size of our target group at about 14,000 girls and young women 15-29 of age, working in urban areas in commercial services in formal employment. Wages (2.8.1). Earnings vary widely between industries, occupational groups, urban and rural areas, and citizens and non-citizens. In 2005-06, the country’s total gender pay gap was 19%, but industries with large shares of females showed gaps of over 30%, also if considerable parts of women were (high-)skilled. Among professionals and technicians / associate professionals women on average had a wage advantage, as well as in central government. However, in private business women experienced a 37% pay gap. Working conditions (2.8.2). Working weeks turn out to be quite long in Botswana, judged by the share working usually 45 hours or more. For women, this share was over 60% in restaurants and hotels, wholesale and retail, and private households, in rural areas, among legislators and managers and among service workers.